Abstract Air pollution is getting severe and concerns about its toxicity effects on airway and lung disease are also increasing. Particulate matter (PM) is major component of air pollutant. It causes respiratory diseases, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and so on. PM particles enter the airway and lung by inhalation, causing damages to them. Especially, PM 2.5 can penetrate into the alveolus and pass to the systemic circulation. It can affect the cardiopulmonary system and cause cardiopulmonary disorders. In this review, we focused on PM-inducing toxicity mechanisms in the framework of oxidative stress, inflammation, and epigenetic changes. We also reviewed its correlation with respiratory diseases. In addition, we reviewed biomarkers related to PM-induced respiratory diseases. These biomarkers might be used for disease prediction and early diagnosis. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common disease worldwide [] and is forecasted to be the 3rd leading cause of death globally in 2030 [].There is an unmet need for easily obtained biomarkers that can identify subtypes of COPD, predict outcomes of COPD, and that can evaluate and facilitate targeting in management of COPD. Www.lung.org > Lung Health and Diseases > Lung Disease Lookup > COPD > Learn About COPD. How Does COPD Affect your Body. COPD is a progressive lung disease, which means it gets worse over time. Chronic cough and frequent respiratory infections as well (see more about symptoms of COPD). People with COPD are also at risk for other health. The aim of the ROflumilast Biopsy European Research Trial (ROBERT) was to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of roflumilast on bronchial mucosal inflammation in patients with moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and chronic bronchitis. With recent trend of using genomic analysis tools in the field of toxicogenomics, respiratory disease biomarkers associated with PM will be continuously investigated. Effective biomarkers derived from earlier studies and further studies might be utilized to reduce respiratory diseases. Keywords: Particulate matter, Biomarker, Oxidative stress, Inflammation, Epigenetic change. INTRODUCTION In modern society, development of industry causes environmental pollutions, including air, water, and soil pollutions. Among them, the air pollution has been revealed to be one of the harmful factors affecting human health by various studies. – In accordance with World Health Organization (WHO) report, the exposure to air pollutant caused approximate 7 million of death in the world in 2012. Air pollutants consist of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, persistent free radicals, particulate matter (PM), and so on. All these substances have some effects on human health. They especially induce lung and heart dysfunctions. Among these major air pollutants, PM is the most harmful substance to human health by causing various diseases., It is classified as a Group 1 carcinogen (induces carcinogenesis in human body) by International Agency for Research on Cancer. PM induces the premature death in people with heart or lung disease. It also induces nonfatal heart attacks, irregular heartbeat, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function, and increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing, and difficulty breathing. PM is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplet in the atmosphere. The complex mixture consists of organic carbon, ammonium, nitrates, sulphates, mineral dust, trace elements, and water. These substances exist as particles with diameters of less than 2.5 μm or less than 10 μm., Particles with diameters of less than 2.5 μm are called PM 2.5 and those of less than 10 μm are called PM 10. PM 10 is composed of various dusts from sea salt, soil dust resuspension, construction/demolition, non-exhausted vehicle emissions, and industrial fugitives. Sources of PM 2.5 are primarily emissions from natural event, such as forest fire, and industrial activities, such as mining and construction. Another sources of PM 2.5 are secondary particles converted from chemical or gas generated by industrial activities. Heavy metals, such as Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, V, Cu, and Mn, are well-known as hazardous substances. ![]() They are also sources of PM 2.5. Depending on its diameter, PM has detrimental effects on human. ![]() It has different transport efficiency and penetration ratio to the respiratory system. PM 10 leads to physical damage to the respiratory system, such as alveolus and larynx. It rarely induces chemical reaction to lung tissue. It can reach alveolus or bronchioles but cannot penetrate alveolus. In contrast, PM 2.5 is able to penetrate into the alveolus and pass to the systemic circulation. It induces both physical and chemical damage to the respiratory system. Therefore, PM 2.5 induces more serious damage to the lung than PM 10. Respiratory system has physical contact with air pollutant by respiration. After being exposed to air pollutant such as PM, inhalation toxicity to the respiratory system might be occured. ![]() Numerous research studies have suggested that PM is associated with respiratory toxicity in in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological studies. – PM can induce oxidative stress and inflammation on respiratory organ tissue. – It triggers the development and exacerbation of diverse diseases of the respiratory system, such as asthma,, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), – and so on. Besides, PM can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and some oxidative metabolite, causing oxidative stress. It damages DNA and causes epigenetic changes., According to this reason, PM can eventually induce cancer ( ). Once lung is damaged by chemical such as PM, regeneration of lung to normal state is almost impossible. Thus, prediction and early diagnosis of lung diseases are important and imperatively necessary. Biomarkers can be used for disease prediction. Various epigenetic biomarkers of lung diseases induced by PM exposure have been discovered in recent researches., Epigenetic changes do not alter the DNA sequences. However, they can modify methylation or acetylation of DNA and histone protein, and then induces changes in DNA structure and gene expression. In this review, we focused on PM-inducing toxicity mechanisms in the framework of oxidative stress, inflammation, and epigenetic changes. We also reviewed its correlation with respiratory diseases ( ). In addition, we reviewed biomarkers related to PM-induced respiratory diseases. These biomarkers might be used for disease prediction and early diagnosis. TOXIC EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. Biomarkers In Obstructive Respiratory Diseases An Update On The Effects 2017Xnview 2 11 key fff rar files. Oxidative stress Oxidative stress can be defined as damage resulting from imbalance of oxidation and reduction status of the body. As a result of oxidation, ROS can react with other molecules. Organism has antioxidant defense system for maintaining the stability of redox homeostasis. However, antioxidant system cannot overcome the effect of excessively produced ROS. Excessive ROS has various detrimental effects on the body, including cell function impairment and cell death. In human, oxidative stress causes various diseases, such as cancers, neurological diseases, heart diseases, atherosclerosis, and pulmonary disease., It is well-known that PM induces oxidative stress in the lung. Because various chemicals and compounds, including PMs, can enter the airway directly, lung has a unique protecting system itself. Higher glutathione (GSH) levels have been observed in alveolar epithelial surface (about 140 times higher than those of plasma). – GSH plays important role in protecting lungs against oxidative stress by returning oxidized cell constituents to reduced form and by detoxifying lipid hyperoxides or other oxidants. Thus, depletion of GSH is associated with disease development. Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between GSH level and disease development. – In addition, when there are high levels of oxidative stress in lung tissue, neutrophils will arrive and become activated, which can produce more ROS. These over-produced ROS may cause oxidative stress, consequently leading to inflammatory response in the airway. Inflammation Inflammatory response is a process that react on tissues receiving harmful stimuli. It protects human body involving immune cells.
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